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The reduction and/or internalization of the environmental, spatial and social costs caused by the transport sector are policy objectives which have been commonly assumed over the last decades (e.g. Directive 1999/62/EC, Directive 2006/38/EC). Within a market approach and according to the “polluter pays” principle, internalization is a way toward a comprehensive payment actually born by the transpo ...

Oil transportation in the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Finland poses transnational risks to the marine environment. Maritime oil transportation is also vulnerable to security threats, an area of less attention in the Baltic Sea. Traditionally, improvements to maritime safety regulation have realized only after major accidents. Post-accident policies are not very comprehensive and may be biased by the ch ...